| Personality psychology is a branch of | | | | model was proposed by Hans Eysenck, who |
| psychology which studies personality and | | | | believed that just three traits - |
| individual differences. One emphasis in this | | | | extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism - |
| area is to construct a coherent picture of a | | | | were sufficient to describe human |
| person and his or her major psychological | | | | personality. Differences between Cattell and |
| processes. Another emphasis views personality | | | | Eysenck emerged due to preferences for |
| as the study of individual differences, in | | | | different forms of factor analysis, with |
| other words, how people differ from each | | | | Cattell using oblique, Eysenck orthogonal, |
| other. A third area of emphasis examines | | | | rotation to analyse the factors that emerged |
| human nature and how all people are similar | | | | when personality questionnaires were |
| to one other. These three viewpoints merge | | | | subjected to statistical analysis. Today, the |
| together in the study of personality. | | | | Big Five factors have the weight of a |
| | | | considerable amount of empirical research |
| Personality can be defined as a dynamic and | | | | behind them. Building on the work of Cattell |
| organized set of characteristics possessed by | | | | and others, Lewis Goldberg proposed a |
| a person that uniquely influences his or her | | | | five-dimension personality model, nicknamed |
| cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in | | | | the "Big Five": |
| various situations (Ryckman, 2004). The word | | | | |
| "personality" originates from the Latin | | | | Extraversion - outgoing and |
| persona, which means mask. Significantly, in | | | | stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and |
| the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking | | | | stimulation-avoiding |
| world, the mask was not used as a plot device | | | | |
| to disguise the identity of a character, but | | | | Neuroticism - emotionally reactive, prone to |
| rather was a convention employed to represent | | | | negative emotions vs. calm, imperturbable, |
| or typify that character. | | | | optimistic |
| | | | |
| The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon | | | | Agreeableness - affable, friendly, |
| Allport (1937) described two major ways to | | | | conciliatory vs. aggressive, dominant, |
| study personality, the idiographic and the | | | | disagreeable |
| nomothetic. Nomothetic psychology seeks | | | | |
| general laws that can be applied to many | | | | Conscientiousness - dutiful, planful, and |
| different people, such as the principle of | | | | orderly vs. laidback, spontaneous, and |
| self-actualization, or the trait of | | | | unreliable |
| extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an | | | | |
| attempt to understand the unique aspects of a | | | | Openness to experience - open to new ideas |
| particular individual. | | | | and change vs. traditional and oriented |
| | | | toward routine |
| The study of personality has a rich and | | | | |
| varied history in psychology, with an | | | | John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, |
| abundance of theoretical traditions. Some | | | | commonly referred to as the Holland Codes, |
| psychologists have taken a highly scientific | | | | stipulates that there are six personality |
| approach, whereas others have focused their | | | | traits that lead people to choose their |
| attention on theory development. There is | | | | career paths. This model is widely used in |
| also a substantial emphasis on the applied | | | | vocational counseling and is a circumplex |
| field of personality testing. | | | | model where the six types are represented as |
| | | | a hexagon where adjacent types are more |
| Philosophical assumptions | | | | closely related than those more distant. |
| | | | |
| Many of the ideas developed by historical and | | | | Trait models have been criticized as being |
| modern Personality Theorists stem from basic | | | | purely descriptive and offering little |
| philosophical assumptions they hold. | | | | explanation of the underlying causes of |
| Psychology is not a purely empirical | | | | personality. Eysenck's theory, however, does |
| discipline, as it brings in elements of art, | | | | propose biological mechanisms as driving |
| science, and philosophy to draw general | | | | traits, and modern behavior genetics |
| conclusions. The following five categories | | | | researchers have demonstrated a clear genetic |
| are some of the most fundamental | | | | substrate to them. Another potential weakness |
| philosophical assumptions where theorists | | | | with trait theories is that they lead people |
| disagree: | | | | to accept oversimplified classifications, or |
| | | | worse offer advice, based on a superficial |
| Freedom versus Determinism | | | | analysis of one's personality. Finally, trait |
| | | | models often underestimate the effect of |
| The debate over whether we have control over | | | | specific situations on people's behavior. It |
| our own behavior and understand the motives | | | | is important to remember that traits are |
| behind it (Freedom), or if our behavior is | | | | statistical generalizations that do not |
| basically determined by some other force over | | | | always correspond to an individual's |
| which we might not have control | | | | behavior. |
| (Determinism). We may merely respond to | | | | |
| external forces like government, parents, | | | | Type theories |
| professors, the economic system, etc; or we | | | | |
| may even be constrained to behave in certain | | | | Personality type refers to the psychological |
| ways by our genetics, upbringing, etc. | | | | classification of different types of people. |
| | | | Personality types are distinguished from |
| Heredity versus Environment | | | | personality traits, which come in different |
| | | | levels or degrees. According to type |
| The nature vs. nurture debate. Is personality | | | | theories, for example, there are two types of |
| determined largely by genetics and heredity, | | | | people, introverts and extraverts. According |
| or by environment and experiences? There is | | | | to trait theories, introversion and |
| evidence for both sides, and the field of | | | | extraversion are part of a continuous |
| behavior genetics has demonstrated | | | | dimension, with many people in the middle. |
| interesting new results in this area, such as | | | | The idea of psychological types originated in |
| the importance of unshared environmental | | | | the theoretical work of Carl Jung. |
| effects (such as individual experiences) over | | | | |
| shared environmental effects (such as family | | | | Building on the writings and observations of |
| and demographics). Furthermore, twin studies | | | | Carl Jung, during WWII Isabel Briggs Myers |
| indicate that there is a substantial genetic | | | | and her mother Katharine C. Briggs delineated |
| contribution to most personality traits. | | | | personality types by constructing the |
| | | | Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. This model was |
| Uniqueness versus Universality | | | | later elaborated further by David Keirsey. It |
| | | | is an older, more theoretical approach to |
| The argument over whether we are all unique | | | | personality, accepting Extraversion vs. |
| individuals (Uniqueness) or if humans are | | | | Introversion as basic and further adding |
| basically similar in their nature | | | | three more dimensions: |
| (Universality). | | | | |
| | | | Extraversion vs. Introversion (see above) |
| Proactive versus Reactive | | | | |
| | | | Intuition vs. Sensing (trust in conceptual |
| Do we primarily act through our own | | | | abstract models of reality versus concrete |
| initiative (Proactive), or do we react to | | | | sensory-oriented facts) |
| outside stimuli (Reactive)? | | | | |
| | | | Thinking vs. Feeling (thinking as the |
| Optimistic versus Pessimistic | | | | prime-mover in decision-making vs. feelings |
| | | | as the prime-mover in decision-making) |
| Finally, whether or not we can alter our | | | | |
| personalities (Optimistic) or if they remain | | | | Perceiving vs. Judging (desire to perceive |
| the same throughout our whole lives | | | | events vs. desire to have things done so |
| (Pessimistic). | | | | judgements can be made) |
| | | | |
| Personality theories | | | | This personality typology has some aspects of |
| | | | a trait theory: it explains people's |
| There are several theoretical perspectives on | | | | behaviour in terms of opposite fixed |
| personality in psychology, which involve | | | | characteristics. In these more traditional |
| different ideas about the relationship | | | | models, the intuition factor is considered |
| between personality and other psychological | | | | the most basic, dividing people into "N" or |
| constructs, as well as different theories | | | | "S" personality types. An "N" is further |
| about the way personality develops. | | | | assumed to be guided by the thinking or |
| | | | objectication habit, or feelings, and be |
| Critics of personality theory claim that | | | | divided into "NT" (scientist, engineer) or |
| personality is "plastic" across time, places, | | | | "NF" (author, human-oriented leader) |
| moods, and situations. Changes in personality | | | | personality. An "S", by contrast, is assumed |
| may indeed result from diet (or lack | | | | to be more guided by the perception axis, and |
| thereof), medical effects, significant | | | | thus divided into "SP" (performer, craftsman, |
| events, or learning. However, most | | | | artisan) and "SJ" (guardian, accountant, |
| personality theories emphasize stability over | | | | bureaucrat) personality. These four are |
| fluctuation. | | | | considered basic, with the other two factors |
| | | | in each case (including always extraversion) |
| Trait theories | | | | less important. Critics of this traditional |
| | | | view have observed that the types are quite |
| According to the Diagnostic and Statistical | | | | strongly stereotyped by professions, and thus |
| Manual of the American Psychiatric | | | | may arise more from the need to categorize |
| Association, personality traits are "enduring | | | | people for purposes of guiding their career |
| patterns of perceiving, relating to, and | | | | choice. This among other objections led to |
| thinking about the environment and oneself | | | | the emergence of the five factor view, which |
| that are exhibited in a wide range of social | | | | is less concerned with behavior under work |
| and personal contexts." Theorists generally | | | | stress and more concerned with behavior in |
| assume that a) traits are relatively stable | | | | personal and emotional circumstances. Some |
| over time, b) traits differ among individuals | | | | critics have argued for more or fewer |
| (e.g. some people are outgoing while others | | | | dimensions while others have proposed |
| are shy), and c) traits influence behavior. | | | | entirely different theories (often assuming |
| | | | different definitions of "personality"). |
| The most common models of traits incorporate | | | | |
| three to five broad dimensions or factors. | | | | Type A personality: During the 1950s, Meyer |
| The least controversial dimension, observed | | | | Friedman and his co-workers defined what they |
| as far back as the ancient Greeks, is simply | | | | called Type A and Type B behavior patterns. |
| extraversion vs. introversion (outgoing and | | | | They theorized that intense, hard-driving |
| physical-stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and | | | | Type A personalities had a higher risk of |
| physical-stimulation-averse). | | | | coronary disease because they are "stress |
| | | | junkies." Type B people, on the other hand, |
| Gordon Allport delineated different kinds of | | | | tended to be relaxed, less competitive, and |
| traits, which he also called dispositions. | | | | lower in risk. There was also a Type AB mixed |
| Central traits are basic to an individual's | | | | profile. Dr. Redford Williams, cardiologist |
| personality, while secondary traits are more | | | | at Duke University, refuted |
| peripheral. Common traits are those | | | | Friedman’s theory that Type |
| recognized within a culture and thus may vary | | | | A personalities have a higher risk of |
| from culture to culture. Cardinal traits are | | | | coronary heart disease; however, current |
| those by which an individual may be strongly | | | | research indicates that the hostility |
| recognized. | | | | component of Type A may have health |
| | | | implications. Type A/B theory has been |
| Raymond Cattell's research propagated a | | | | extensively criticized by psychologists |
| two-tiered personality structure with sixteen | | | | because it tends to oversimplify the many |
| "primary factors" (16 Personality Factors) | | | | dimensions of an individual's personality. |
| and five "secondary factors." A different | | | | |