Different types of psychology
 

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Article #2: Personality psychology

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Personality psychology is a branch of describe human personality. Differences
psychology which studies personality and between Cattell and Eysenck emerged due
individual differences. One emphasis in to preferences for different forms of
this area is to construct a coherent factor analysis, with Cattell using
picture of a person and his or her major oblique, Eysenck orthogonal, rotation to
psychological processes. Another emphasis analyse the factors that emerged when
views personality as the study of personality questionnaires were subjected
individual differences, in other words, to statistical analysis. Today, the Big
how people differ from each other. A Five factors have the weight of a
third area of emphasis examines human considerable amount of empirical research
nature and how all people are similar to behind them. Building on the work of
one other. These three viewpoints merge Cattell and others, Lewis Goldberg
together in the study of personality. proposed a five-dimension personality
Personality can be defined as a dynamic model, nicknamed the "Big Five":
and organized set of characteristics Extraversion - outgoing and
possessed by a person that uniquely stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and
influences his or her cognitions, stimulation-avoiding
motivations, and behaviors in various Neuroticism - emotionally reactive, prone
situations (Ryckman, 2004). The word to negative emotions vs. calm,
"personality" originates from the Latin imperturbable, optimistic
persona, which means mask. Significantly, Agreeableness - affable, friendly,
in the theatre of the ancient conciliatory vs. aggressive, dominant,
Latin-speaking world, the mask was not disagreeable
used as a plot device to disguise the Conscientiousness - dutiful, planful, and
identity of a character, but rather was a orderly vs. laidback, spontaneous, and
convention employed to represent or unreliable
typify that character. Openness to experience - open to new
The pioneering American psychologist, ideas and change vs. traditional and
Gordon Allport (1937) described two major oriented toward routine
ways to study personality, the John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational
idiographic and the nomothetic. model, commonly referred to as the
Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws Holland Codes, stipulates that there are
that can be applied to many different six personality traits that lead people
people, such as the principle of to choose their career paths. This model
self-actualization, or the trait of is widely used in vocational counseling
extraversion. Idiographic psychology is and is a circumplex model where the six
an attempt to understand the unique types are represented as a hexagon where
aspects of a particular individual. adjacent types are more closely related
The study of personality has a rich and than those more distant.
varied history in psychology, with an Trait models have been criticized as
abundance of theoretical traditions. Some being purely descriptive and offering
psychologists have taken a highly little explanation of the underlying
scientific approach, whereas others have causes of personality. Eysenck's theory,
focused their attention on theory however, does propose biological
development. There is also a substantial mechanisms as driving traits, and modern
emphasis on the applied field of behavior genetics researchers have
personality testing. demonstrated a clear genetic substrate to
Philosophical assumptions them. Another potential weakness with
Many of the ideas developed by historical trait theories is that they lead people
and modern Personality Theorists stem to accept oversimplified classifications,
from basic philosophical assumptions they or worse offer advice, based on a
hold. Psychology is not a purely superficial analysis of one's
empirical discipline, as it brings in personality. Finally, trait models often
elements of art, science, and philosophy underestimate the effect of specific
to draw general conclusions. The situations on people's behavior. It is
following five categories are some of the important to remember that traits are
most fundamental philosophical statistical generalizations that do not
assumptions where theorists disagree: always correspond to an individual's
Freedom versus Determinism behavior.
The debate over whether we have control Type theories
over our own behavior and understand the Personality type refers to the
motives behind it (Freedom), or if our psychological classification of different
behavior is basically determined by some types of people. Personality types are
other force over which we might not have distinguished from personality traits,
control (Determinism). We may merely which come in different levels or
respond to external forces like degrees. According to type theories, for
government, parents, professors, the example, there are two types of people,
economic system, etc; or we may even be introverts and extraverts. According to
constrained to behave in certain ways by trait theories, introversion and
our genetics, upbringing, etc. extraversion are part of a continuous
Heredity versus Environment dimension, with many people in the
The nature vs. nurture debate. Is middle. The idea of psychological types
personality determined largely by originated in the theoretical work of
genetics and heredity, or by environment Carl Jung.
and experiences? There is evidence for Building on the writings and observations
both sides, and the field of behavior of Carl Jung, during WWII Isabel Briggs
genetics has demonstrated interesting new Myers and her mother Katharine C. Briggs
results in this area, such as the delineated personality types by
importance of unshared environmental constructing the Myers-Briggs Type
effects (such as individual experiences) Indicator. This model was later
over shared environmental effects (such elaborated further by David Keirsey. It
as family and demographics). Furthermore, is an older, more theoretical approach to
twin studies indicate that there is a personality, accepting Extraversion vs.
substantial genetic contribution to most Introversion as basic and further adding
personality traits. three more dimensions:
Uniqueness versus Universality Extraversion vs. Introversion (see above)
The argument over whether we are all
unique individuals (Uniqueness) or if Intuition vs. Sensing (trust in
humans are basically similar in their conceptual/abstract models of reality
nature (Universality). versus concrete sensory-oriented facts)
Proactive versus Reactive Thinking vs. Feeling (thinking as the
Do we primarily act through our own prime-mover in decision-making vs.
initiative (Proactive), or do we react to feelings as the prime-mover in
outside stimuli (Reactive)? decision-making)
Optimistic versus Pessimistic Perceiving vs. Judging (desire to
Finally, whether or not we can alter our perceive events vs. desire to have things
personalities (Optimistic) or if they done so judgements can be made)
remain the same throughout our whole This personality typology has some
lives (Pessimistic). aspects of a trait theory: it explains
Personality theories people's behaviour in terms of opposite
There are several theoretical fixed characteristics. In these more
perspectives on personality in traditional models, the intuition factor
psychology, which involve different ideas is considered the most basic, dividing
about the relationship between people into "N" or "S" personality types.
personality and other psychological An "N" is further assumed to be guided by
constructs, as well as different theories the thinking or objectication habit, or
about the way personality develops. feelings, and be divided into "NT"
Critics of personality theory claim that (scientist, engineer) or "NF" (author,
personality is "plastic" across time, human-oriented leader) personality. An
places, moods, and situations. Changes in "S", by contrast, is assumed to be more
personality may indeed result from diet guided by the perception axis, and thus
(or lack thereof), medical effects, divided into "SP" (performer, craftsman,
significant events, or learning. However, artisan) and "SJ" (guardian, accountant,
most personality theories emphasize bureaucrat) personality. These four are
stability over fluctuation. considered basic, with the other two
Trait theories factors in each case (including always
According to the Diagnostic and extraversion) less important. Critics of
Statistical Manual of the American this traditional view have observed that
Psychiatric Association, personality the types are quite strongly stereotyped
traits are "enduring patterns of by professions, and thus may arise more
perceiving, relating to, and thinking from the need to categorize people for
about the environment and oneself that purposes of guiding their career choice.
are exhibited in a wide range of social This among other objections led to the
and personal contexts." Theorists emergence of the five factor view, which
generally assume that a) traits are is less concerned with behavior under
relatively stable over time, b) traits work stress and more concerned with
differ among individuals (e.g. some behavior in personal and emotional
people are outgoing while others are circumstances. Some critics have argued
shy), and c) traits influence behavior. for more or fewer dimensions while others
The most common models of traits have proposed entirely different theories
incorporate three to five broad (often assuming different definitions of
dimensions or factors. The least "personality").
controversial dimension, observed as far Type A personality: During the 1950s,
back as the ancient Greeks, is simply Meyer Friedman and his co-workers defined
extraversion vs. introversion (outgoing what they called Type A and Type B
and physical-stimulation-oriented vs. behavior patterns. They theorized that
quiet and physical-stimulation-averse). intense, hard-driving Type A
Gordon Allport delineated different kinds personalities had a higher risk of
of traits, which he also called coronary disease because they are "stress
dispositions. Central traits are basic to junkies." Type B people, on the other
an individual's personality, while hand, tended to be relaxed, less
secondary traits are more peripheral. competitive, and lower in risk. There was
Common traits are those recognized within also a Type AB mixed profile. Dr. Redford
a culture and thus may vary from culture Williams, cardiologist at Duke
to culture. Cardinal traits are those by University, refuted Friedman’s
which an individual may be strongly theory that Type A personalities have a
recognized. higher risk of coronary heart disease;
Raymond Cattell's research propagated a however, current research indicates that
two-tiered personality structure with the hostility component of Type A may
sixteen "primary factors" (16 Personality have health implications. Type A/B theory
Factors) and five "secondary factors." A has been extensively criticized by
different model was proposed by Hans psychologists because it tends to
Eysenck, who believed that just three oversimplify the many dimensions of an
traits - extraversion, neuroticism and individual's personality.
psychoticism - were sufficient to






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