| Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder according to | | | | with ADHD or they can get angry and resentful. |
| Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is brain | | | | These reactions create dynamic challenges for any |
| based and most often affects children. This | | | | family and or individual dealing with ADHD. Other |
| developmental disorder can be characterized as a | | | | possible hindering perceptions by parents within the |
| disorder in which affects ones self control; primary | | | | family system can be identified by comparing |
| aspects include difficulty with attention, impulse control, | | | | Erickson's, Psycho Social Developmental Perspectives |
| and activity levels usually diagnosed prior to the age of | | | | (Berger, 2000). According to Erickson, children from the |
| 7yrs. of age (Willoughby, 2003). | | | | age of 3 yrs. old to 6 yrs. of age will develop through a |
| There are primarily three sub-types of ADHD. | | | | series of challenges to parents, taking the "initiative" or |
| Inattentive sub-type 1 is ADHD which those who | | | | "failing," bringing feelings of "guilt" (Berger, 2000). When |
| manifest inattention without the presence of | | | | the child's challenging behavior takes place however, |
| hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is | | | | as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw, |
| also ADHD sub-type 2 with symptomolgy related to | | | | (1994) states, that parents may not allow these |
| hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Finally | | | | children to have the benefit of the doubt, due to past |
| there is ADHD combined sub-type (Visser & | | | | excessive behavior under normal circumstances, and |
| Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my paper, I will | | | | the parents may see their child as an "easy target." |
| utilize information that represents all subtypes in various | | | | According to the evidence, miscalculating the child's |
| degrees and the affects of these difficulties upon the | | | | natural challenging behavior could take place and |
| individual, educational, family, and social development as | | | | disallow the child to develop in a healthy, "guilt free" |
| well as issues of social justice and cultural issues for | | | | way, having significant affects on their psycho-social |
| those children who suffer from this disorder. | | | | development. Excessive amounts of guilt can produce |
| Historically the modern symptoms of ADHD were first | | | | significant amounts of anxiety and depression (Burns, |
| identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, & Stubbe | | | | 1990). These negative processes in variable degrees |
| 2001), by English physician George Still in 1902 (Neufeld | | | | can clearly lead to negative affects on social and |
| & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (2001), explains that in a | | | | emotional processes (Burns, 1990). |
| series of historical events from 1917-1918 in North | | | | Other family processes affecting ADHD and |
| America that led to an encephalitis outbreak there was | | | | development according to Peris & Hinshaw |
| a dramatic increase in research of characteristics that | | | | (2003), is that core symptoms of impulse control and |
| are similar to modern day ADHD symptomology. | | | | inattention are primarily heritable, and parental practices |
| Through out the early years of research there was | | | | do not warrant significant (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994; |
| even research and investigations into medical | | | | Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for ADHD. |
| conditions which promoted swelling in certain aspects | | | | However, the family interaction patterns and external |
| of the brain, which many believe led to impulsivity and | | | | influences may have a significant impact on severity |
| hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As research evolved so | | | | and the developmental course of ADHD (Peris & |
| did the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; shaping | | | | Hinshaw, 2003). Furthermore, evidence suggests |
| identifiable factors believed to contribute to the | | | | (Barkley, 1985; Battle & Lacey, 1972; Buhrmester, |
| causation of ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, | | | | Camparo, Christensen, Gonsalez, & Hinshaw, 1992; |
| there seems to be less dopamine and nor-epinephrine | | | | Campbell, 1973; Cunningham & Barkley, 1979; |
| within the brains of those with ADHD and four genes | | | | MacDonald, 1988; Mash & Johnston, 1982; |
| that regulate dopamine have been identified as ADHD | | | | Tallmadge & Barkley, 1983) that mothers of |
| causal agents; however a definite causal agent has | | | | ADHD children are less affectionate. Other disturbing |
| not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain activity is | | | | findings indicate that parents can be more critically |
| considerably lower in the pre-frontal lobe regions in | | | | demanding and parents independently report a greater |
| those with ADHD and there is also decrease in blood | | | | tendency to blame their ADHD child for problems they |
| flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984), (Barkley, | | | | actually had with their spouses; thus proving further |
| 2005). According to Barkley (2005), psychological | | | | that family systemic patterns can play a major role in |
| characteristics of ADHD are that it is about the | | | | the perpetuation and affects of ADHD upon child |
| "behavioral inhibition." These children do not benefit | | | | development (Camparo et al., 1994). Of course these |
| from what may happen later based upon what they | | | | processes clearly affect a school-age child within their |
| do now; which can be compared to a "time near | | | | families and external systems in ways which reduce a |
| sightedness", (Barkley, 2005). They have difficulty | | | | child's self worth, confidence, and abilities to properly |
| identifying their past, preparing for the future, organizing, | | | | interact and function within their environment; proving |
| scheduling, and working independently, with social and | | | | this, Dumas & Pelletier (1999) indicated that |
| occupational issues (Barkley, 2005). It is these | | | | pre-adolescents were found to have lower levels of |
| difficulties when intermingled with the development of | | | | self esteem in areas of scholastic competence, |
| the individual that could clearly cause great difficulties | | | | behavioral conduct, and social acceptance. |
| especially when enrolled in formalized schooling and | | | | According to Barkley (2005), those with ADHD, at |
| onward into the demands of school and adulthood. | | | | times do not give themselves time to evaluate their |
| The prevalence rates regarding the diagnosis of | | | | emotions objectively before a reaction, fail to separate |
| ADHD has been from ranges of 4 % to 18 % | | | | their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our |
| depending upon the community, types of populations, | | | | emotions, evaluate them, and analyze them before |
| and areas of analysis (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). | | | | displaying them publicly assist in self control and is |
| ADHD is one of the most common childhood disorders | | | | difficult for those suffering from ADHD (Barkley, 2005). |
| with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). | | | | Those who suffer from ADHD develop a pattern of |
| Estimates show (Biederman, 1996), that nearly 6 % of | | | | social rejection due to inappropriate interactions |
| boys and 1.5 % of girls have ADHD (Singh, 2002). It | | | | beginning during formalized schooling according to |
| cost nearly 3.3 billion dollars to medically treat ADHD | | | | Barkley (2005). According to Nixon (2001), those |
| every year in the United States (Visser & | | | | children suffering from ADHD lack significant social |
| Lesesne, 2005). Currently causation factors under | | | | skills that affect the quality of their interactions, such as; |
| consistent follow up according to Barkley (2005) | | | | verbal & physical aggression, disruptive attempts |
| include; | | | | to enter new groups, negative classroom behaviors, |
| 1. Genetics | | | | being quick tempered and violating the rules. Nixon |
| 2. Premature Birth | | | | (2001) presents more evidence that social cognition is |
| 3. Traumatic Brain Injury | | | | clearly affected and children with ADHD can have |
| 4. Spine and Brain Infections | | | | great difficulty in making clear interpretations of their |
| 5. Early exposure to substances during pregnancy | | | | environmental interactions with others. These variables |
| 6. Early exposure to lead | | | | clearly lead to inhibited social contact, and a |
| 7. Less blood flow and lower brain activity | | | | dysfunction in psycho-social development. According |
| Because ADHD is a representation of physical | | | | to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates |
| imperfections within the brain and actually manifests a | | | | that formalized school age children from 7 to 11 years |
| decrease of activity in the pre-frontal lobe regions; | | | | old need to develop confidence that allow them to feel |
| certain treatment options with amphetamines, | | | | as if they have mastered "Industry" (Berger, 2000). If |
| stimulants and non-amphetamines have been utilized to | | | | this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior |
| increase brain activity (Barkley, 2005). The size and | | | | (Berger, 2000). How can these children who are |
| anomalies within the brain have been verified and | | | | excluded due to their ADHD manifestations of |
| examined through many technological processes such | | | | behavior, be given the chance to participate and prove |
| as Positron Emission Tomography and MRI scanning | | | | themselves to resist negative aspects of "Inferiority?" |
| (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other physical abnormalities | | | | As these children develop into adolescents and adults, |
| of development according to Barkley (2005), include | | | | one can hypothesize when comparing ADHD behavior |
| appearances of slight deformities including; longer than | | | | and social reactions with the Erickson Psycho-Social |
| average index finger, third toe that is longer than | | | | Framework (Berger, 2000). Erickson states that |
| second toe, ears that are slightly lower upon the head, | | | | adolescents attempt to find their roles in the world and |
| no earlobes or a furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of | | | | if they fail, role confusion develops (Berger, 2000). |
| children suffering with ADHD will continue to struggle | | | | Confusion for those suffering from ADHD would |
| with this disorder into adolescents and as many as 50 | | | | come easily due to their exclusion from social groups |
| to 60 percent will continue to struggle into adulthood | | | | and activities (Barkley, 2005). In order for adolescents |
| (Barkley, 2005). With the affects upon a child's school, | | | | to find their role and their identity; they must interact |
| family, and social environments a large emotional toll | | | | with others and feel accepted in their participation |
| can be identified. Emotionally, children can feel isolated, | | | | (Berger, 2000). Further into adulthood Erickson in |
| angry, guilty, frustrated and many other emotions due | | | | Berger (2000), indicates that as adult's, individuals will |
| to the disruption of relationships, opportunities and lack | | | | seek intimacy with others or become isolated. The |
| of clear decision making skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of | | | | factor of isolation relates to the extent in which those |
| these children can become depressed and exhibit | | | | developing fear rejection and disappointment (Berger, |
| anxiety (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors | | | | 2000). Unfortunately, prior social experiences of those |
| include stubbornness, defiance and at times can be | | | | suffering from ADHD can be littered with social |
| verbally or physically violent to others (Barkley, 2005). | | | | rejection, feelings of disappointment and unacceptance |
| According to Barkley (2005) nearly 57% of preschool | | | | due to impulsiveness and hyperactive behaviors |
| children are likely to be rated as inattentive and | | | | (Barkley, 2005). Furthermore, (Pope, Bierman, & |
| over-reactive by their parents up to the age of four. | | | | Mumma, 1999), these authors according to Nixon |
| As many as 40% according to Barkley (2005), may | | | | (2001), also claim that hyperactivity and the inattentive / |
| have these problems for up to three to six months, | | | | immature nature of a child's behavior with ADHD |
| concerning parents and teachers. According to | | | | contributes greatly to interpersonal problems. |
| Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns | | | | In regards to social justice and cultural issues; |
| (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of preschool | | | | according to Bender (2006), African American children |
| children truly meet the criteria for ADHD, and | | | | may be under represented and under diagnosed in |
| (Biederman, 1996), clarified that possibly 10 % of all | | | | regards to ADHD. Experts such as (Dr. Rahn Bailey, |
| children meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD (Singh, | | | | 2006) according to Bender (2006), claim that as |
| 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier the | | | | science is pursuing new technological processes to |
| symptoms of ADHD appear and the length of time | | | | diagnose and treat ADHD, cultures like the African |
| they last in childhood will determine the severity of its | | | | American community are subjected to propaganda, |
| course and prognosis (Barkley, 2005). Individually there | | | | suspicion due to past and current discrimination, and |
| are many distressing problems for children suffering | | | | negative stereotyping regarding mental illness; thus |
| from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) | | | | forming cultural decisions to avoid diagnosis and |
| indicate are important to recognize as the individual | | | | treatment of ADHD. This cultural-lens, based upon |
| child develops into school age include; | | | | discriminatory and fear based experiences with the |
| 1. An emergence of high demanding ness of preschool | | | | dominant culture dis-allows ethical decisions to help and |
| age | | | | assist African American children (Bender, 2006). These |
| 2. Critical directive behavior by parents to control | | | | decisions according to experts (Bailey, 2006), is |
| circumstances | | | | contributing to high rates of African American children |
| 3. Problems reported by preschool / formal school | | | | disproportionately over represented in remedial |
| staff regarding child's behavior | | | | programs and disproportionate amounts of African |
| 4. Problems with learning and reading | | | | American children over represented in the criminal |
| 5. Decisions to withhold a child an educational grade | | | | justice system (Bender, 2006). The issues of classism |
| 6. Excessive temper tantrums / difficulty in getting child | | | | and impoverishment can also be a topic of concern |
| to do chores | | | | regarding those who suffer from ADHD. According to |
| 7. Social exclusion from activities | | | | Visser & Lesesne, (2005), ADHD diagnosis among |
| According to Spira & Fischel (2005), within the | | | | males was reported significantly more often in families |
| pre-school environment at the age of 3 yrs. old, | | | | with incomes below the poverty threshold than in |
| children's attention controls, and self control | | | | families with incomes at or above the poverty |
| mechanisms begin developing. Increased self control | | | | threshold. Here again, poverty makes a clear and |
| and speech development continues from age 3yrs. old | | | | consistent statement of risk for our developing children. |
| (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Self control processes | | | | In conclusion, I believe that ADHD seems to be an |
| continue to well develop through the age of 4yrs. old | | | | elusive, devastating, developmental disorder. This |
| (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work | | | | disorder for my self is so destructive because of its |
| together allowing the child to maintain self-control and | | | | manifesting elements of hyperactivity, impulsivity and |
| through 4 yrs. of age the child develops the ability to | | | | inattentiveness. These variables are processes that if |
| direct attention to relavent environmental stimuli (Spira | | | | represented to certain degrees are perfect for |
| & Fischel, 2005). Together, the maintaining of | | | | destroying social, educational, emotional and individual |
| attention and control over responses emerges and of | | | | development across the life span. Because our lives |
| course is very important in identifying task's and | | | | are so dependent upon not just our biological |
| working functionally within the educational environment, | | | | construction but also our social and environmental |
| however; these processes indicated do not emerge | | | | interaction; this disorder can be serious and |
| for those with ADHD due to the manifestation of | | | | detrimentally disruptive. I do however believe that new |
| hyper-activity and impulsivity around the age of 3 to 4 | | | | technologies are hopeful in understanding this disability |
| yrs. of age, and inattention manifesting near 5 to 6 yrs. | | | | in greater measures. I also have gained ideas regarding |
| of age (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children develop | | | | the new information regarding neuro-plastisity and the |
| into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) | | | | changing mind based upon therapeutic thought. I feel |
| indicated that 30 to 50 percent of children will be | | | | this may be a possible frontier of research that should |
| retained one grade during their school years. According | | | | be a priority in better understanding how the brain can |
| to Vance & Luk (2000), 20 to 30 percent of | | | | change forms; especially the pre-frontal cortex regions. |
| children with ADHD will manifest comorbidity with | | | | L.J. Riley Jr. BSW, LLMSW |
| learning disorders; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. | | | | Reference |
| If a child is diagnosed with ADHD and Conduct | | | | Barkley, R. A., (2005). Taking Charge of ADHD: The |
| Disorder the percentages increase for a co morbid | | | | Complete Authoritative Guide for |
| learning disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One | | | | Parents. New York: The Guilford Press. |
| theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997), is | | | | Bender, E., (May 19, 2006). Scare tactics may deter |
| that according to Spira and Fischel, (2005) those | | | | blacks from ADHD help. Psychiatric News, 41 (10) 16. |
| children with ADHD do not acquire the literacy skills | | | | Retrieved January 20, 2007 from [ |
| necessary for early reading and learning. Furthermore, | | | | Berger, K. S., (2001). The Developing Person: Through |
| it is hypothesized that the frustration due to lack of | | | | the Life Span. New York: |
| ability perpetuates acting out behaviors consistently | | | | Worth Publishing. |
| witnessed by school staff of children with ADHD | | | | Burns, D. D., (1999). The Feeling Good Hand Book. New |
| (Spira & Fischel, 2005). | | | | York: Plume Books. |
| As children move through adolescents it is abundantly | | | | Camparo, L., Christensen, A., Buhrmester, D., & |
| clear that with vast developmental changes; finding | | | | Hinshaw, S., (1994). System functioning in families with |
| ones role identity as clarified by Eric Erickson (Berger, | | | | ADHD and non-ADHD sons. Personal Relationships, 1, |
| 2006), relational dating, peer pressure, and other | | | | 301-308. |
| demands of adolescents become extraordinarily | | | | Dumas, D., & Pelletier, L. (1999). Perception in |
| difficult with individual difficulties of impulsiveness, | | | | hyperactive children. Maternal Child |
| hyperactivity and inattentiveness (D. Moilanen CMSW, | | | | Nursing, 24, 12-19. |
| Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). According | | | | Gordon, J., (2006) Ohio facts sheet; adolescents with |
| to Gordon (2006), adolescents continue to have many | | | | ADHD. Retrieved January 20, 2007 from [ |
| difficulties especially; | | | | Jaelline J., Benedictis, T., Segal, R., & Segal, J., |
| 1. Disorganization | | | | (March 7, 2006). Adult ADD & ADHD: recognizing |
| 2. Planning long term assignments | | | | the symptoms and managing the effects. Retrieved on |
| 3. Completing homework | | | | January 20, 2007 from |
| 4. Complying with parental rules. | | | | Laigne, J.V., Gibbons, R.D., Christoffel, K.K., Arend, R., |
| 5. Sustaining attention and focus | | | | Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H., et al. (1996). Prevalence rates |
| Because adolescents are seeking to find a competent | | | | and correlates of psychiatric disorders among |
| and healthy identity, conflicts with parental and | | | | preschool children. Journal of the American Academy |
| academic systems can leave an adolescent to feel | | | | of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 204-214. |
| diminished, angry and frustrated before the entry into | | | | Maniadaki, K., Sonuga-Barke, E., Kakouros, E., & |
| adulthood (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal | | | | Karaba, R., (February, 21, 2006). Parental beliefs about |
| Communication, January 25, 2007). | | | | the nature of ADHD behaviors and their relationship to |
| Adulthood brings new challenges and according to | | | | referral intentions in preschool children. Journal |
| Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal, (2006), the | | | | Compilation of Blackwell Publishing. Retrieved on |
| following are just a few of the challenges for adults | | | | January 20, 2007 from |
| living with ADHD; | | | | Neufeld, P., & Foy, M., (2006). Historical reflections |
| 1. Managing money | | | | on the ascendancy of ADHDin North America. British |
| 2. "Zoning out in conversations" | | | | Journal of Education Studies, 54, (4), 449-470. |
| 3. Speaking without thinking | | | | Nixon, E., (2001). The social competence of children |
| 4. Procrastination | | | | with Attention Deficit Hyper-activity Disorder: a review |
| 5. Becoming easily frustrated | | | | of the literature. Child Psychology & Review of |
| Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his theory of | | | | the |
| Psycho-Social Development and indicates that as early | | | | Literature, 6, (4), 172-177. |
| adults we want to find intimacy or we will face | | | | Peris, T. S., Hinshaw, S. P., (2003). Family dynamics and |
| isolation. It seems clear that these adults due to their | | | | preadolescent girls with ADHD: the relationship |
| disability will continue to confront difficulties with their | | | | between expressed emotion, ADHD symptomatology, |
| families, social relationships, and negative individual | | | | and comorbid disruptive behavior. Journal of Child |
| perceptions onward into adulthood. These difficulties | | | | Psychology and Psychiatry, 44 (8) 1177 - 1190. |
| could place them at risk to become isolated. | | | | Rafalovich, A. (2001). The conceptual history of |
| The individual within their family is greatly impacted by | | | | Attention Deficit Hyperactivity |
| this developmental disorder. According to Barkley | | | | Disorder: idiocy, imbecility, encephalitis and the child |
| (2005) ADHD is 25 to 30% acquired by heredity, and if | | | | deviant, 1877-1929. |
| a parent has ADHD the child is 8 to 10 times more | | | | Deviant Behavior: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 93-115. |
| likely at acquiring the disorder. Barkley (2005) also | | | | Singh, I., (2002). Children and society. Center for Family |
| indicated that parents at the beginning of preschool | | | | Research Universityof Cambridge, 16, 360-367. |
| attend and manage their child fairly well, however; | | | | Spira, E. G., Fischel, J. E., (2005). The impact of |
| parents tend to lose what they feel as control over | | | | preschool inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on |
| their child the further the child develops through school. | | | | social and academic development: a review. Journal of |
| Parents can feel drained, overwhelmed and | | | | Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46 (7), 755-773. |
| exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin blaming | | | | Stubbe, D. E. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity |
| themselves for their child's behavior (Barkley, 2005). | | | | disorder overview: historicalperspectives, current |
| Over time these difficulties can lead to perceptions by | | | | controversies, and future directions. Child and |
| parents that may be less than positive (Maniadaki, | | | | Psychiatric |
| Sonuga, Kakouros, & Karaba, 2006). | | | | Clinics of North America, 9 (3), 469-479. |
| Research shows that parental perceptions within the | | | | Vance, A. L. A., Luk, E. S. L., (2000). Attention deficit |
| family can clearly have implications regarding how a | | | | hyperactivity disorder: currentprogress and |
| child is treated and the negative affects and | | | | controversies. Australian and New Zealand Journal of |
| perceptions that affect the child's developmental | | | | Psychiatry, 34, |
| stages (Maniadaki et al., 2006). According to Maniadaki | | | | 719-730. |
| et al., (2006), parental perceptions do have significant | | | | Visser, S. N., Lesesne, C. A., (August 31, 2005). Mental |
| impact upon children suffering from ADHD due to the | | | | health in the United States: prevalence of diagnosis and |
| likelihood of the parents not obtaining mental health | | | | medication treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity |
| services for their children; the difficulty parents had | | | | disorder --- United States, 2003. Retrieved January 20, |
| identifying the impact the child's behavior would have | | | | 2007 from |
| on the child's development; and the parents inability to | | | | Willoughby, M. T., (2003). Developmental course of |
| identify the severity of the child's symptoms, all have | | | | ADHD symptomatology during |
| dramatic affects on the child's developmental | | | | During the transition from childhood to adolescence: a |
| processes. Siblings can also have negative perceptions | | | | review with recommendations. |
| of the child's behavior, affecting the degree of support | | | | Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44 (1), |
| siblings bring to each other within a family. According to | | | | 88-106. |
| Gordon (2006), siblings can feel sorry for their sibling | | | | |